Striking a New Path
And the L-rd said, "Let us make man in our image, after our likeness, and they shall rule over the fish of the sea and over the fowl of the heaven and over the animals and over all the earth and over all the creeping things that creep upon the earth." (Sefer Beresheit 1:26)
Sefer Devarim and Sefer Beresheit are connected
The Torah is read in an annual cycle. Each Simchat Torah we complete the reading of the Torah and immediately renew the cycle by reading the opening of Sefer Beresheit. Sefer Beresheit deals with very different material than Sefer Devarim. Sefer Devarim contains Moshe’s final address to the generation of Bnai Yisrael that was poised to enter and take possession of the Land of Israel. Sefer Beresheit begins with the creation narrative. We would expect there to be very little connection between this account of creation and Moshe’s final words. However, there is a very important connection between Sefer Devarim and the story of creation.
Both Moshe’s final address and the creation narrative discuss human freewill. Let us first consider the Torah’s treatment of freewill in the creation narrative. In the above passage, the Torah describes the design of the human-being. The passage describes us as created in the image and likeness of Hashem and His ministering angels. What are the meanings of the terms “image” and “likeness”? Rav Ovadia Sforno addresses this question. In order to understand his explanation of these terms, a survey of the characteristics of Hashem and His creations is required.
Characteristics of Hashem, angels, and the beasts
The beasts are completely instinctual creatures. They do not act in response to imperatives derived from the intellect. A cow has never decided to suspend its grazing in order to contemplate the rising and setting of the sun. Any intelligence that is exhibited by an animal is solely in service of satisfying its instinctual drives.
In contrast, Hashem’s angels are devoid of instinct. Instead, their actions and behaviors are dictated by their intelligence. They are akin to a software-driven device that is controlled by the intelligence reflected in its program.
Despite their dissimilarity, angels and beasts share an important characteristic. Both are devoid of freewill. They respond uncontrollably to their respective drives. The animal responds to demands of its instincts and the angels are perfect servants of Hashem and incapable of deviating from their assigned tasks or missions.
Hashem’s behaviors reflect His unbounded intelligence. They are also free from any influence or compulsion deriving from a source outside of Himself. In other words, Hashem is the source of His own actions and acts with perfect freewill.[1]
The meaning of “image” and “likeness”
With this background information, we can return to Sforno’s interpretation of the terms “image” and “likeness”. Sforno explains that the term “image” – tzelem – refers to the human-being’s eternal soul. This soul provides us with the capacity to perceive ideas and thereby, comprehend the Torah and acquire knowledge.
Sfrono suggests that the term demut – “likeness” – has a dual meaning. In one respect we share a demut with Hashem. In another respect, we share a demut with the angels. Human-beings have the capacity to act intelligently. In this respect, we have the likeness of the angels and we are contrasted with the beast whose behaviors are driven and dictated by instinct.
We also share a likeness with Hashem. Angels lack the capacity to determine their own actions. They are perfectly obedient servants who cannot deviate from the role or mission assigned to them by Hashem. We have the capacity to determine our own behaviors; we have freewill. In this respect, we are akin to Hashem. He is the only other being that is the source of His own behaviors and actions.[2]
Freewill is fundamental to the Torah
Maimonides explains that our capacity to make our own choices is fundamental to the Torah’s commandments and to it promises of reward and punishment. If our behaviors are predetermined and freewill is only apparent and not real, then there is no basis for characterizing actions as wicked or righteous. All actions are predetermined and no judgment can be made of them. The acts of a murderer are no more deserving of our moral condemnation than the infection caused by a bacteria. Similarly, acts of charity and kindness no more deserve our approbation than the rising and setting of the sun. Without freewill, all moral assessments of human behavior are meaningless.
Furthermore, without freewill, reward and punishment do not have a just foundation. No act deserves to be characterized as wicked and deserving of punishment or righteous and deserving of reward.[3]
Freewill is fundamental to the process of repentance
Maimonides also explains that the imperative to repent derives from freewill. Freewill places upon us the responsibility for our actions. We are responsible for the sins we have committed and for repenting from these wrongdoings. If our actions were the results of forces that we neither control nor have the power to resist, then we would bear no responsibility for our sins. Neither would there be any basis for repentance. In this context, Moshe discusses freewill in Sefer Devarim.
Behold, I set before you today a blessing and a curse. The blessing, that you will heed the commandments of Hashem, your L-rd, which I command you today and the curse, if you will not heed the commandments of Hashem, your L-rd, but turn away from the way I command you this day, to follow other gods, which you did not know. (Sefer Devarim 11:26-28)
Behold, I have set before you today life and good, and death and evil. (Sefer Devarim 30:15)
Two discussions of freewill in Sefer Devarim
Maimonides suggests that his position is expressed in the above passages. In these selections of passages, Moshe tells the people that two paths lay before them. They may either choose to observe the commandments and thereby, secure the blessings he has described or they may select the path of wickedness and incur the curses of which he has forewarned. In these passages, Moshe stresses that the people have a choice; and they have the unfettered capacity to make that choice.
Maimonides does not further explore these two separate discussions of freewill. However, it is noteworthy that Moshe twice discusses this issue. Is there some difference between Moshe’s two treatments of freewill?
Two expressions of freewill
Rav Yosef Dov Soloveitchik Zt”l suggests that Moshe is bringing to our attention two aspects of freewill. Moshe’s first discussion of freewill initiates an admonition against idolatry. Moshe warns the people to uproot all manifestations of idolatry from the land and tells them that they will establish a sacred temple – the Bait HaMikdash. They will not offer their sacrifices upon a plethora of altars throughout the land but will bring them to Hashem’s Bait HaMikdash.
The second discussion of freewill takes place in a very different context. It is preceded by Moshe’s description of the terrible punishments that will befall the nation if it abandons the Torah. Moshe then tells the people that Bnai Yisrael will persevere though its suffering and exile. The people will eventually return to Hashem. Hashem will respond to their repentance. He will redeem them. He will restore them to the Land of Israel and He will renew the blessings that were enjoyed by their ancestors. Moshe tells the people that even in the darkest, most terrible times they have the ability to repent. Personal change and regeneration is never beyond our ken.[4] It is this context that Moshe returns to the issue of freewill.
Rav Soloveitchik suggests that in his initial discussion of freewill, Moshe is focusing on the basic phenomenon. We are the cause of our own actions. We have the ability to make our own choices and choose our destiny. Moshe then instructs the people to exercise this freewill and uproot all manifestations of idolatry from the land. Most of us recognize the experience of freewill described in this discussion. We believe that we have experienced freewill and made choices.
The second discussion follows Moshe’s assurance that Hashem will not abandon His nation. When the people repent and return to Hashem, He will return to them and rescue Bnai Yisrael from their terrible ordeal of exile and torment. Here, Moshe is discussing freewill in the context of repentance.
This is an expression of freewill that may be less familiar to us. We sometimes – or often – feel compelled to tread a certain path and incapable of resisting its call. In other words, we believe that we have some degree of freewill but we also assume that it is limited and that in many respects we are compelled by upbringing, habit, or fundamental disposition to act in a predetermined manner.
In his second discussion, Moshe is assuring us that even after an extended period of alienation from Hashem and abandonment of His Torah, we can and will repent. We will abandon our long-standing and abiding attitudes and behaviors and reach-out to Hashem.
In this discussion, Moshe is describing an expression of freewill very different from that of his first discussion. He is describing a freewill that is less familiar to us and whose existence we may sometimes doubt. He is assuring us that we can shed even ingrained behaviors and attitudes and find in ourselves the capacity to re-invent and renew ourselves. We must never believe that the path of repentance has been closed to us and that we are too old or so habituated to familiar behaviors that change is impossible. If we make the decision to choose a new path and take the initial steps in that direction, we will discover in ourselves unknown strength and potential.[5]
Being human means exercising freewill
In summary, both the Torah’s opening parasha and Moshe’s final message to Bnai Yisrael deal with our freewill. In the creation narrative, the Torah reveals to us that freewill is basic to our humanity. It distinguishes us from the beasts and elevates us above the angels. We are uniquely akin to our creator in our capacity to direct our own actions and behaviors.
Sefer Devarim charges us to use that freewill. We are directed to take charge of our lives and assume responsibility for our destiny. Finally, we are assured that we have the capacity to grow and change throughout our lives. Old engrained habits and attitudes can be shed and replaced by others that are praiseworthy, righteous, and just.
We may say that Moshe charges us to exercise this unique capacity with which we are endowed and to fulfill the design of our creation. It is through choosing that we actualize our humanity, and rise above the beasts and angels to emulate our creator. If we resign to abandon this challenge and passively tread the familiar path of past behaviors and attitudes, we also abandon our fundamental humanity.
These are important messages as we move forward into this new year. We are not trapped by our pasts and we can change and renew ourselves.
[1] Freewill is often characterized as the ability to make a free or unrestricted choice between options. Sforno prefers to characterize freewill as the capacity to be the source of one’s own actions. In other words, the capacity to act free of external coercion. This preference reflects theological considerations encountered in conceptualizing Hashem’s freewill. Hashem’s freewill is best characterized as self-directed action. His actions emerge exclusively from Hashem Himself and are not compelled by anything external of Him.
[2] Rabbaynu Ovadia Sforno, Commentary on Sefer Beresheit, 1:26-27.
[3] Rabbaynu Moshe ben Maimon (Rambam / Maimonides) Mishne Torah, Hilchot Teshuvah 5:3-4.
[4] This interpretation of Sefer Devarim 30:11-14 is suggested by Nachmanides. Other commentators understand the passages differently.
[5] Quoted by Rav Beinish Ginsburg, 053 Re’eh, YUTorah.org.